Word formation

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Word formation

Creation of new lexemes or the process of changing words

In linguistics, word formation is an ambiguous term[1] that can refer to either:

  • the processes through which words can change[2] (i.e. morphology), or
  • the creation of new lexemes in a particular language

Morphological

A common method of word formation is the attachment of inflectional or derivational affixes.

Derivation

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Main article: Morphological derivation

Examples include:

  • the words governor, government, governable, misgovern, ex-governor, and ungovernable are all derived from the base word (to) govern[3]

Inflection

Main article: Inflection

Inflection is modifying a word for the purpose of fitting it into the grammatical structure of a sentence.[4] For example:

  • manages and managed are inflected from the base word (to) manage[1]
  • worked is inflected from the verb (to) work
  • talks, talked, and talking are inflected from the base (to) talk[5]

Nonmorphological

Abbreviation

Examples includes:

  • etc. from et cetera

Acronyms & Initialisms

Main article: Acronym

An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words.[6] For example:

  • NASA is the acronym for National Aeronautics and Space Administration
  • IJAL (pronounced /aidʒæl/) is the acronym for International Journal of American Linguistics

Acronyms are usually written entirely in capital letters, though some words originating as acronyms, like radar, are now treated as common nouns.[7]

Initialisms are similar to acronyms, but where the letters are pronounced as a series of letters. For example:

  • ATM for Automated Teller Machine
  • SIA for Singapore International Airlines[1]

Back-formation

Main article: Back-formation

In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word by removing actual affixes, or parts of the word that is re-analyzed as an affix, from other words to create a base.[5] Examples include:

  • the verb headhunt is a back-formation of headhunter
  • the verb edit is formed from the noun editor[5]
  • the word televise is a back-formation of television

The process is motivated by analogy: edit is to editor as act is to actor. This process leads to a lot of denominal verbs.

The productivity of back-formation is limited, with the most productive forms of back-formation being hypocoristics.[5]

Blending

Main article: Blend word
See also: Portmanteau

A lexical blend is a complex word typically made of two word fragments. For example:

  • smog is a blend of smoke and fog
  • brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch.[6]
  • stagflation is a blend of stagnation and inflation[1]
  • chunnel is a blend of channel and tunnel,[1] referring to the Channel Tunnel

Although blending is listed under the Nonmorphological heading, there are debates as to how far blending is a matter of morphology.[1]

Compounding

Main article: Compound (linguistics)

Compounding is the processing of combining two bases, where each base may be a fully-fledged word. For example:

  • desktop is formed by combining desk and top
  • railway is formed by combining rail and way
  • firefighter is formed by combining fire and fighter[5]

Compounding is a topic relevant to syntax, semantics, and morphology.[2]

Hashtagging as word formation

Linguists argue that hashtags are words and hashtagging is a morphological process.[8][9] Social media users view the syntax of existing viral hashtags as guiding principles for creating new ones. A hashtag’s popularity is therefore influenced more by the presence of popular hashtags with similar syntactic patterns than by its conciseness and clarity.[10]

Word formation vs. semantic change

Main article: semantic change
See also: conversion (word formation)

There are processes for forming new dictionary items which are not considered under the umbrella of word formation.[1] One specific example is semantic change, which is a change in a single word’s meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.

See also

References

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  1. [1]
    .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:”””””””‘””‘”}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg”)right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg”)right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg”)right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url(“//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg”)right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(–color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(–color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}Bauer, L. (1 January 2006). “Word Formation”. Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second ed.). Elsevier. pp. 632–633. doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/04235-8. ISBN 9780080448541. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  2. [2]
    Baker, Anne; Hengeveld, Kees (2012). Linguistics. Malden, MA.: John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. ISBN 978-0631230366.
  3. [3]
    Katamba, F. (1 January 2006). “Back-Formation”. Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second ed.). pp. 642–645. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00108-5. ISBN 9780080448541.
  4. [4]
    Linguistics : the basics. Anne, July 8- Baker, Kees Hengeveld. Malden, MA.: John Wiley & Sons. 2012. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-631-23035-9. OCLC 748812931.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  5. [5]
    Katamba, F. (1 January 2006). “Back-Formation”. Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second ed.). pp. 642–645. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00108-5. ISBN 9780080448541.
  6. [6]
    Aronoff, Mark (1983). “A Decade of Morphology and Word Formation”. Annual Review of Anthropology. 12: 360. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.12.100183.002035.
  7. [7]
    Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew (2018). An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4744-2896-5.
  8. [8]
    Caleffi, Paola-Maria (2015). “The ‘hashtag’: A new word or a new rule?” (PDF). Skase Journal of Theoretical Linguistics. 12 (2). ISSN 1336-782X.
  9. [9]
    Calude, Andreea S.; Long, Maebh; Burnette, Jessie (2024-06-07). “#AreHashtagsWords? Structure, position, and syntactic integration of hashtags in (English) tweets”. Linguistics Vanguard. 10 (1): 105–114. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2023-0044. ISSN 2199-174X.
  10. [10]
    Wan, Ming Feng (2024-03-12). “The role of syntax in hashtag popularity”. Linguistics Vanguard. 10 (1): 693–698. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2023-0051. ISSN 2199-174X.

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